Definition and Examples of Pejoration in Language

In linguistics, pejoration is the downgrading or depreciation of a words meaning, as when a word with a positive sense develops a negative one. Pejoration is much more common than the opposite process, called amelioration. Here are some examples and observations from other writers: Silly The word silly is a classic example of pejoration, or gradual worsening of meaning. In early Middle English (around 1200), sely (as the word was then spelled) meant happy, blissful, blessed, fortunate, as it did in Old English. . . . The original meaning was followed by a succession of narrower ones, including spiritually blessed, pious, holy, good, innocent, harmless. . . . As the form (and pronunciation) sely changed to silly in the 1500s, the earlier meanings passed into increasingly less favorable senses such as weak, feeble, insignificant. . . . By the late 1500s, the words use declined to its present-day meaning of lacking good sense, empty-headed, senseless, foolish, as in This is the silliest stuff that ever I heard (1595, Shakespeare, A Midsummer Nights Dream). (Sol Steinmetz, Semantic Antics: How and Why Words Change Meanings. Random House, 2008) Hierarchy Hierarchy shows a similar, though more pronounced, deterioration. Originally applied to an order or a host of angels from the fourteenth century, it has steadily moved down the scale of being, referring to a collective body of ecclesiastical rulers from c. 1619, from whence the similar secular sense develops c.1643 (in Miltons tract on divorce). . . . Today one frequently hears of the party hierarchy, business hierarchies, and the like, denoting only the top of the hierarchy, not the whole order, and conveying the same nuances of hostility and envy implied in elite.(Geoffrey Hughes, Words in Time: A Social History of the English Vocabulary. Basil Blackwell, 1988) Discreet [U]sing language to spin may worsen the meaning of the substituted language, a process linguists call pejoration. That has happened to the previously innocuous adjective discreet, when used in personal columns as a euphemism for illicit sexual meetings. A recent Wall Street Journal article quoted the customer service manager of an online dating service as saying he banned the use of discreet from his service because its often code for married and looking to fool around. The site is for singles only.(Gertrude Block, Legal Writing Advice: Questions and Answers. William S. Hein, 2004) Attitude Let me give one final example of this kind of semantic corrosion--the word attitude. . . . Originally, attitude was a technical term, meaning position, pose. It shifted to mean mental state, mode of thinking (presumably whatever was implied by someones posture). In colloquial usage, it has since deteriorated. Hes got an attitude means hes got a confronting manner (probably uncooperative, antagonistic); something to be corrected by parents or teachers. Whereas once this would have been rendered Hes got a bad attitude or an attitude problem, the negative sense has now become overwhelming.(Kate Burridge, Gift of the Gob: Morsels of English Language History. HarperCollins Australia, 2011)​ Pejoration and Euphemism One specific source of  pejoration is euphemism . . .: in avoiding some taboo word, speakers may use an alternative which in time acquires the meaning of the original and itself falls out of use. Thus, in English, disinformation has replaced lying in some political contexts, where it has recently been joined by being economical with the truth.(April M. S. McMahon, Understanding Language Change. Cambridge University Press, 1999) Generalizations About Pejoration Some few generalizations are possible:Words meaning inexpensive have an inherent likelihood to become negative in connotation, often highly negative. Lat. [Latin] vilis at a good price (i.e. inevitably, low price) commonplace trashy, contemptible, low (the current meaning of It. [Italian], Fr. [French], NE. [Modern English] vile).Words for clever, intelligent, capable commonly develop connotations (and eventually denotations of sharp practice, dishonesty, and so on: . . . NE crafty dishonestly clever is from OE craeftig strong(ly)l skillful(ly) (NHG [New High German] krà ¤ftig strong; the ancient sense strong, strength of this family of words fades very early in the history of English, where the usual senses pertain to skill).NE cunning has very negative connotations in present-day English, but in Middle English it meant learned, skillful, expert . . ..(Andrew L. Sihler, Language History: An Introduction. John Benjamins, 2000) Pronunciation: PEDGE-e-RAY-shun Also Known As: deterioration, degeneration EtymologyFrom the Latin, worse

Essay about Karl Heinrich marx and Social-Conflict Analysis

Social-conflict analysis argues that rather than benefiting society as a whole, social stratification benefits some people and disadvantages others. This analysis draws heavily on the ideas of the great Karl Marx. Karl Heinrich Marx was a German philosopher, social scientist, and revolutionist whose writings formed the beginning of the basic ideas known as Marxism. He was born on May 5, 1818, in a place called Trier in Prussia. Marx attended the University of Bonn and later the University at Berlin, where he studied law, while majoring in history and philosophy to follow in his father’s footsteps of becoming a lawyer. Although scholars largely disregarded him in his own lifetime, his social, economic and political ideas gained rapid†¦show more content†¦On the contrary, the peasants became to be known as the Proletarians, the people who sell their labor for wages. Clearly, since the Bourgeoisies and the Proletarians have contrasting interests, they are vastly separate d by a gap of wealth and power, making social class conflict almost inevitable. Since the infamous The Communist Manifesto was fabricated during an era of prodigious social distress both economically and politically, it was the result of Marx’s desire to eradicate the gap between the Bourgeoisies and the Proletarians in order to ultimately restructure the social, political, and economic conditions of the Proletarians. To attain equality amongst all, Marx encouraged the Proletarians to plot against the Bourgeoisies to end the exploitation of lower social classes and set up a communistic society where class distinction would no longer be of issue. Unfortunately, this model of his required a society to undertake some changes that ultimately would not be able to successfully adapt to and nonetheless provide the equality he is striving for. Marx’s theories were established only upon class stratification while disregarding the primary factors that contribute to the actual foundation of a society. Here is why many scholars compare this idea of Marxism to the socialist movement that is known as communism. If one were to read over the all the demands listed,Show MoreRelatedThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1389 Words   |  6 PagesHawthorne Mrs. Almack AP English 4 10/1/14 Marxism is a secular method for analysis focusing on class relations and societal conflict, which can be used to analyze The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne. Karl Heinrich Marx was born in Prussia on May 5, 1818 to Heinrich and Henrietta Marx. He explored sociopolitical theories and became a journalist creating socialist writings causing him to be banished from Germany and France. 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Procedural Pain and Brain Development †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Procedural Pain and Brain Development. Answer: Introduction: Infants are affected very much by pain of different medical procedures in hospitals. This happens due to lack of knowledge of different therapies and massages that can be used while treatment of any infant. From different studies of sensorial saturation, massage has been proved to be an effective, non-pharmacological treatment for pain-relief (Bellieni et al., 2012). Venipuncture is process for access into vain for intravenous therapy or for drawing blood from vein. The journal, published in Honk Kong investigates thoroughly how massage can be an effective process in order to reduce the pain in infants during Venipuncture. Dr. Kai Chow Choi is a PhD in statistics an expert in epidemiological studies and biostatistics. Another author Dr. Wan-Yim Ip is an associate professor at Nethersole School of Nursing, Faculty of medicine. He is a specialist in obstetric care and general nursing. Dr. Yuen-Man Chik is another member of faculty of medicine and he is also a child specialist and expert in teenage medicine. A territorial hospital in Hong Kong is chosen as the organisation for the discussion. Massage has been proved as an effective pain reducing method from the previous studies. A study of sensorial saturation has showed that it elevates heart rates and pain scores remarkably (Brummelte et al., 2012). The result of a study relating nursing methodology among 135 infants has showed that infants with gestational age between 33-36 weeks have to endure 60 painful procedures, whereas infants with gestational age 28 weeks have to endure near about 700. The symptoms of pain include elevated respiratory rate, heart rate, blood pressure and oxygen saturation depletion (Slater et al., 2012). Infants responses like body motion, crying and facial indication depend on their gestational age and resistance power (Madlinger-Lewis et al., 2014). Their facial gestures include squeezing of eyes, nasolobial furrow, swelling of eye-brows and open lips. The importance of this study lies with professional help of the health expert to minimize the infant pain (Chik, Ip Choi, 2017). Elimination or prevention of pain for infants during medical processes is not possible, but it can be minimized using effective non-pharmacological steps (Bergomi et al., 2014). Massage has been proved to be a technique that provides sensitive care. Effective weight gain, reduction of stress level and improvement of behavioural status in infants are some of the effects of massage (Abdallah, Badr Hawwari, 2013). The main objective of this study can be categorized into two sections. First one is examination of the response of infants in pain while Venipucture process and the second one is determination of effectiveness of upper limb massage in order to reduce the pain response of infants while undergoing Venipuncture (Savino et al., 2013). Neonatal Intensive Care Unit of a hospital deals with the problems of newborn infant (Maxwell, Malavolta Fraga, 2013). With approval of local ethical committee various methods have been applied for the study. The methodology for this study is a crossover one that can be controlled randomly. Infants have been categorized into two parts for this study. These two groups are Massage 1st and Massage 2nd. The criteria included for this study are the gestational age of the infants, their proper size and required Venipuncture that can find out the defects (DiCenso, Guyatt Ciliska, 2014). The infants who are involved with neuromuscular medication or sedation within 48 hours before application of pain reducing procedures or have gone through surgery previously or have anomalies in central nervous system have not been included in this study (Akuma Jordan, 2012). This categorization helps this study by making it simple. The collected data can verified separately which will help to draw the conclusion of the study. Application of methodologies: The infants in Massage 1st group have undergone intervention of upper limb massage primarily and subsidiary cares afterwards. The Massage 2nd group infants have gone through a vice-versa process (Chen et al., 2012). After massaging by a well trained nurse, ten physicians have performed the Venipuncture process using same technique (Cullum et al., 2013). Appearance of a good number of physicians ensures the safety of infants (Hall Anand, 2014). Upper limb massage is a modified massage therapy, derived from the concepts of Vimala McClure, founder of International Association of Infant Massage, developed for premature progressive stimulation for infants, which enhances blood circulation and co-ordination, improves muscle tone and sleep (Gandhi, 2017). In this technique, the upper limbs are subjected to gentle strokes, milking and rolling (Bergomi et al., 2014). The massage is applied 5 minutes before Venipuncture to the upper limbs and the infants are covered to secure their blinding (Savino et al., 2013). The massage has lasted for two minutes. After that, Venipuncture is performed by the physicians using 24 gauge, 0.75 inch angiocatheter. The size of this catheter is standard for drawing intravenous fluids from infant body. A second blood sample is taken to check the infection level after completion of 24 to 48 hours of first Venipunccture. Video recording has been done for data collection. Heart rate is being measured using a data collecting system consists of three electrocardiogram leads, which gives accurate data and an infrared oximeter is used to review oxygen saturation (Slater et al., 2012). Phillips IntelliVue MP30, which is a lightweight, 6 cm. Screen machine, comes with a multi-measurement server and one battery, used to monitor the infants routinely. It has 5 hours battery back-up and touch screen option. There are two nurses, one for data collection and another for data review. Premature Infant Pain Profile (PIPP) is the tool used in this study for evaluation of infant behaviour (Akuma Jordan, 2012). This tool focuses on gestational age, state of behaviour, saturation of oxygen and measures of heart rate. These are the areas on which preliminary data has been collected. The PIPP evaluation tools investigate the data in behavioural, circumstantial and psychological terms (Abdallah, Badr Hawwari, 2013). The reliability coefficient has been marked 0.91 to 0.99 for pain events in infant. IBM SPSS statistics 22.0 has been used for data analysis. The fundamental characteristics for different groups are compared using Pearson chi-square tools. A generic evaluation system is used for examining the difference in pain scores between massage and other required care. Within 80 infants, 52.5% are male and 47.5% are female. The average gestational age is 37 weeks and average bodyweight has been considered to be 28 Kg. The PIPP results indicate that, for the 1st infant group mean pain scores are 6.0 and 12.0 with massage and without massage respectively and for the 2nd infant group the scores are 7.3 and 12.7 respectively (van Dijk et al., 2012). The carryover effects, the comparison between usefulness of massage as a pain reduction therapy and other necessary treatment are examined by using the generic evaluation equations (GEE) model (Hall Anand, 2014). Two GEE models have been used in this case. The first one incorporates no adjustment for infant characteristics and the second one incorporates adjustments form gestational age, sex and bodyweight of the infants. The assessment of the model for both the cases indicates that the pain scores for the infants are essentially low who have received massage after potential time and carryover effects rather than who have received the necessary treatments. Analysing the data it can be noticed that PIPP is effective method of study that can be used to deduce the effectiveness of upper limb massage for pain management in infants (Brummelte et al., 2012). The level of pain that can be caused by Venipucture ranges from moderate to severe. The ranges of pain score are set as below: Comparison table for pain scores Pain score Level of pain 0 No pain 6 and below Minimal pain 7 to 12 Moderate pain Beyond 12 Severe pain The previous table shows the relationship between pain score and level of pain for the infants who have undergone through massage before Venipuncture (van Dijk et al., 2012). For the infants, who have not been subjected to massage, the severity6 of pain does not follow the table, rather increases by a lot. For the Massage 1st and Massage 2nd group, however the difference in pain scores does not have much significance. However, the study does not clinically represent the relationship between upper limb massage and reduction of pain. Another lack of the study is that the massage technique cannot be applied equally to all clinical practices, it needs to be standardized. To determine various illnesses present at birth, infants have to go through Venipucture process and it is almost impossible to eliminate the resulting pain (Chik, Ip Choi, 2017). Proper application of some non-pharmacological techniques can comfort infants during this process. However, very few nurses have completed these training. In modern day clinical practices, physiotherapists are the ones who perform this massage (DiCenso, Guyatt Ciliska, 2014). Conclusion: In modern day medical practices, the importance of Venipuncture is very high and it is irreplaceable till now in order to determine the child-birth diseases. But infants suffer a great deal because of this. In order to compensate the pain massage of upper limbs is one of the non-pharmacological therapies that can be applied. Limb massage is not a common intervention method that can be applied to an infant but several studies prove that infants, whose gestational age are in between 30 to 40 weeks, feel comfort with application of limb massage before the application of any medical procedure. The Neonatal Intensive Care Unit of any hospital, where the infants are being treated, should have a good number of trained nurses and physiotherapists, who can perform this procedure. Instruments, required for Venipuncture as well as for monitoring the infants should be accurate because wrong data can lead to severe damages. Differences between pain scores under different explains the usefulness o f non-pharmacological practices like upper limb massage, the conditions of their application. Relevance: The study is related to the health of infants, which is itself a very delicate and valuable issue in nursing. An infant has very low resistance power, which becomes the main issue when they are subjected to any medical procedure. The study relates this resistive power of infants to Venipuncture which is a very critical procedure. The process causes lots of pain to an infant, which can cause severe damage (Chik, Ip Choi, 2017). It is very important to understand their behaviours and gestures because infants cannot express their pains through words (Maxwell, Malavolta Fraga, 2013). Through this study, a brief idea can be generated about the behaviours of infant while application of Venipuncture (Savino et al., 2013). The research shows the requirement of clinical expertise in this case which can be related to nursing. The nurses and the physiotherapists should be well-trained in their fields, because the non-pharmacological processes are performed by them (Madlinger-Lewis et al., 201 4). The non-pharmacological processes are compulsory for various medical procedures as they help to reduce pain, maintain health status (Gandhi, 2017). In this research, limb massage has been proved to be the most effective pain reduction process for Venipuncture (DiCenso, Guyatt Ciliska, 2014). Various data have been obtained and analysed which provide the circumstantial pain scores and measures of pain realisation. The data is obtained by dividing the infants into two categories and by applying vice-versa procedure. Another thing which has been noticed from the study is the use of proper instruments. The measurements of heart rate, oxygen saturation have been measured using accurate and safe instruments. In nursing practice, it is very important to know about the operation of instruments properly (Bergomi et al., 2014). Pain relief is one of the primary contexts of nursing practices. The main objective of this practice is to take care of the sick. From the report, a link can be e stablished between this study and basic nursing practices based on evidence (Cullumet al., 2013). References: Abdallah, B., Badr, L. K., Hawwari, M. (2013). The efficacy of massage on short and long term outcomes in preterm infants.Infant Behavior and Development,36(4), 662-669. Akuma, A. O., Jordan, S. (2012). Pain management in neonates: a survey of nurses and doctors.Journal of Advanced Nursing,68(6), 1288-1301. Bellieni, C. V., Tei, M., Coccina, F., Buonocore, G. (2012). Sensorial saturation for infants pain.The Journal of Maternal-Fetal Neonatal Medicine,25(sup1), 79-81. Bergomi, P., Chieppi, M., Maini, A., Mugnos, T., Spotti, D., Tzialla, C., Scudeller, L. (2014). Nonpharmacological techniques to reduce pain in preterm infants who receive heel-lance procedure: a randomized controlled trial.Research And Theory for Nursing Practice,28(4), 335-348. Brummelte, S., Grunau, R. E., Chau, V., Poskitt, K. J., Brant, R., Vinall, J., ... Miller, S. P. (2012). Procedural pain and brain development in premature newborns.Annals of Neurology,71(3), 385-396. Chen, M., Shi, X., Chen, Y., Cao, Z., Cheng, R., Xu, Y., ... Li, X. (2012). A prospective study of pain experience in a neonatal intensive care unit of China.The Clinical Journal of Pain,28(8), 700-704. Chik, Y. M., Ip, W. Y., Choi, K. C. (2017). The Effect of Upper Limb Massage on Infants Venipuncture Pain.Pain Management Nursing,18(1), 50-57. Cullum, N., Ciliska, D., Haynes, B., Marks, S. (Eds.). (2013).Evidence-based nursing: an introduction. John Wiley Sons. DiCenso, A., Guyatt, G., Ciliska, D. (2014).Evidence-Based Nursing-E-Book: A Guide to Clinical Practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. Gandhi, A. (2017). Non-pharmacological analgesia-effective but underused. Hall, R. W., Anand, K. J. (2014). Pain management in newborns.Clinics in Perinatology,41(4), 895. Madlinger-Lewis, L., Reynolds, L., Zarem, C., Crapnell, T., Inder, T., Pineda, R. (2014). The effects of alternative positioning on preterm infants in the neonatal intensive care unit: A randomized clinical trial.Research in Developmental Disabilities,35(2), 490-497. Maxwell, L. G., Malavolta, C. P., Fraga, M. V. (2013). Assessment of pain in the neonate.Clinics in Perinatology,40(3), 457-469. Savino, F., Vagliano, L., Ceratto, S., Viviani, F., Miniero, R., Ricceri, F. (2013). Pain assessment in children undergoing venipuncture: the WongBaker faces scale versus skin conductance fluctuations.PeerJ,1, e37. Slater, L., Asmerom, Y., Boskovic, D. S., Bahjri, K., Plank, M. S., Angeles, K. R., ... Fayard, E. (2012). Procedural pain and oxidative stress in premature neonates.The Journal of Pain,13(6), 590-597. van Dijk, J. F., van Wijck, A. J., Kappen, T. H., Peelen, L. M., Kalkman, C. J., Schuurmans, M. J. (2012). Postoperative pain assessment based on numeric ratings is not the same for patients and professionals: a cross-sectional study.International Journal of Nursing Studies,49(1), 65-71.

ULBS 1 Essays - , Term Papers, Research Papers

ULBS 1 Nama: Lee Xin Ru Kelas:4F Tarikh:29-3-17 Tajuk:(Ceramah) Cintailah Sungai Kita PENDAHULUAN:- Sungai merupakan pembekal sumber air kepada manusia. Melalui sungai manusia dapat minum, mandi dan mencuci pakaian. Sungai juga menjadi lokasi yang menarik kunjungan pelancong. Hal ini demikian, sungai wajar dijaga agar kebersihannya akan terus terpelihara. Huraian:- Punca-punca pencemaran sungai Pembuangan sisa pepejal ke dalam sungai - sesetengah anggota masyarakat mengambil jalan mudahdengan caramembuang sampah ke dalam sungai. Mereka menganggap sungai sebagai tong sampah. Sungai menjadi kotor, banyak hidupan akuatik yang pupus. Kurang pemantauan dan langkah penguatkuasaan yang lemah - Pihak berwajib tidak melaksanakan tugas yang diamanahkan sebaik mungkin. Pihak berwajib menghadapi masalah kekurangan pegawai. Pihak yang melakukan kesalahan jarang-jarang dikenakan tindakan. Sikap anggota masyarakat yang tidak prihatin - mereka tidak mempunyai kesedaran betapa pentingnya sungai kepada kehidupan manusia. Mereka juga kurang mengetahui kesan buruk pencemaran sungai. Pencemaran sungai yang dilakukan oleh pihak lain hanya dipandang sebelah mata oleh masyarakat sekeliling. Cara-cara mengekalkan keindahan sungai Pihak kerajaan mesti menganjurkan kempen 'Cintailah Sungai Kita' secara berterusan untuk meningkatkan kesedaran masyarakat tentang kepentingan sungai. - kempen juga lebih berkesan jika diwara-warakan melalui media massa seperti televisyen, radio dan sebagainya. Kerap mengadakan aktiviti gotong-royong membersihkan sungai melibatkan semua lapisan masyarakat - dapat menangani masalah sungai yang kotor. Gotong-royong juga diharapkan dapat memupuk perasaan cinta akan sungai. Tindakan penguatkuasaan yang lebih tegas dan berterusan - perlu mengenakan tindakan tegas kepada pesalah-pesalah seperti mengenakan kompaun yang lebih tinggi dan penjara mandatory. PENUTUP:- Sungai merupakan khazanah kurniaan Tuhan yang sangat besar fungsinya. Semua pihak perlu bekerjasama bagi memastikan keindahan dan kebersihan sungai terpelihara sehingga bila-bila.Cintailah sungai kita. Cintailah Sungai Kita Dalam kehidupan , sungai merupakan pembekal sumber air kepada manusia.Melalui sungai manusia dapat minum, mandi dan mencuci pakaian.Sungai juga menjadi lokasi yang menarik kunjungan pelancong.Namun apa yang kita nampak ialah pencemaran sungai kerana kerakusan manusia .Persoalannya,apakah punca pencemaran sungai dan langkah untuk mengatasi masalahnya? Terdapat beberapa punca pencemaran sungai iaitu pembuangan sisa pepejal ke dalam sungai . Hal ini disebabkan oleh,sesetengah anggota masyarakat menguna jalan yang mudah dengan cara membuang sampah ke dalam sungai. Kerana mereka menganggap sungai sebagai tong sampah. Akhirnya,sungai menjadi kotor dan menyebabkan banyak hidupan akuatik pupus. Selain itu,kurang pemantauan dan penguatkuasaan yang lemah .Kerana pihak yang bertugas tidak melaksanakan tugas yang diamanahkan. Kadang-kadang pihak berwajib menghadapi masalah kekurangan pegawai. Tambahan pula,ada pihak yang melakukan kesalahan jarang-jarang dikenakan tindakan. Seterusnya,sikap anggota masyarakat yang tidak prihatin.Hal ini disebabkan,mereka tidak mempunyai kesedaran dengan pentingnya sungai .Mereka juga tidak tahu kesan buruk pencemaran sungai. Kalau pencemaran sungai yang dilakukan oleh pihak lain hanya dipandang sebelah mata masyarakat sekeliling. Oleh itu, terdapat beberapa langkah untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut iaitu pihak kerajaan boleh mengadakan aktiviti gotong-royong membersihkan sungai dengan melibatkan semua lapisan masyarakat .Ini dapat menangani masalah sungai yang kotor. Gotong-royong juga diharapkan dapat memupuk perasaan cinta akan sungai. Seterusnya, tindakan penguatkuasaan yang lebih tegas dan berterusan perlu mengenakan tindakan tegas kepada pesalah seperti mengenakan kompaun yang lebih tinggi . Bukan itu sahaja,pihak kerajaan mesti mengadakan kempen 'Cintailah Sungai Kita' secara berterusan untuk meningkatkan kesedaran masyarakat tentang kepentingan sungai. Kempen lebih berkesan jika diwara-warakan melalui media massa. Kesimpulannya, sungai merupakan khazanah kurniaan Tuhan. Semua pihak perlu bekerjasama bagai aur dengan tebing bagi memastikan keindahan dan kebersihan sungai terpelihara sehingga bila-bila. Cintailah sungai kita.